Project Management

Key Words
Project management, teams, project, project plans, gantt charts, team leaders, MIS, system flow charts, context diagrams, data flow diagrams, methods of conversion

Contents

• The System Development Cycle
• Techniques for Managing a Project
• Understand The problem
• Planning
• Designing Solutions
• Implementing
• Testing, Evaluating, Maintaining
• Social and Ethical Issues Associated With Change and Project Management
  

Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing, and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific project.

Planning is very important to the successful completion of any task and becomes critically important when we are referring to team oriented projects. A team cannot work effectively unless each person in that team knows what their role is, how to complete that task and then they also know the deadline. Have a look at this cartoon

Elements of Project Management
All projects have three basic elements: tasks, resources and time. These are interrelated and any change in one has an effect on the other two.

Tutorial on MS Project 

By The End Of This Unit:

You would have learned about:

	Web www.bettscomputers.com

The System Development Cycle

Key Words
Development Cycle, UPDIT

The are five stages in the system development cycle:

1. Understand The problem
2. Planning 
3. Designing
4. Implementing
5. Testing, Evaluating, Maintaining
   

Activity 1

1. Why has the Project Manager been drawn as a juggler? What kinds of skills does a Project Manager need?
2. Print out the System Development Cycle and label the picture at the top.
3. Draw arrows between each of the phases.
4. For each branch, explain why each picture has been selected. If you were selecting a picture for each branch describe the picture and justify your choice? 
   

Techniques for Managing a Project

communication skills necessary for dealing with others required to manage a system development project, such as:

• Active Listening: involves a number of techniques which make the listener a real participant:

  1. Attending

  Attending behaviours are non verbal behaviours that communicate that we are listening and engaging with our clients. This reflects the influence our body language has on others including speakers in a conversation. Your body language will give a mesage to the speaker.

  For example, if you feel anxious in a situation, consider what message your body language is conveying to the client.

  Egan (2002) used an acronym (SOLER) as a scaffold to help guide users non verbal skills. However body language differs between cultures. For instance Aboriginal culture uses very different body language. 

  S: Face the other person SQUARELY - but slightly angled position rather than face to face

  O: Use an OPEN POSTURE - seen as being non defensive as opposed to Crossed arms and legs which make others feel blocked and does not show involvement or interest in the conversation.

  L: LEAN towards the speaker. This shows interest.

  E: Maintain EYE CONTACT but don't stare.

  R: Try to be RELAXED.

2. Questions

Ask questions. Clarify what you are not sure about and extend your understanding in areas your are not sure. use open questions not closed. Closed questions have yes and no answers while open questions require details.

• Closed question: Does the current system have any problems?
• Open Question: What kinds of problems does the current system have?

3. Paraphrasing

Use your own language to repeat key points back to the speaker. Paraphrasing helps make the other person feel more engaged and is more likely to encourage the speaker to provide more detail without making them feel put on the spot. Psychologists use this technique a lot to encourage their clients to explore what they are really thinking without asking direct questions. Paraphrasing also focus' your listening and helps ensure clearer communication. If what you have said is not right it encourages the other person to clarify what they have said.

Statement: So much has happened its hard to know where to begin.
Paraphrase: It sounds like a lot has happened and you are confused about how to respond. 

4. Encouraging/ Motivating Responses

It is important to encourage the other person. These motivators include:

• nodding the head

• open gestures

• positive facial expressions (eg smiling) and short sounds such as 'uh-uh' and 'I see'

• repeating back a word or short phrase as an implied question or as feedback to let the speaker know they have your attention 

• silence: which encourage the speaking to fill the silence with words.

Your voice tones are important indicators of your interest, implied questions and your desire for the speaker to continue. Motivators should be expressive, but not excessive. A single word or gesture can be very powerful. encouraging responses can engage clients who were not originally motivated.

• Conflict Resolution: Involves the ability to resolve disputes and issues between members of the team or stakeholders. Conflict is more likely to occur as stress increases. This may happen for any number or combination of reasons. The main thing is to be able to keep a calm disposition and attempt to identify and fix the real issues and not make individuals feel threatened or under attack themselves.
• Negotiation Skills: Negotiation skills are very important for the Project Manager as they negotiate contracts, schedules, differences of opinions, schedules, allocation of tasks, procurement contracts
• interview techniques: Interviews should be well planned and allow for a relaxed atmosphere in which clients and stakeholders feel comfortable discussing the real issues. The questions should be open ended and so encourage more information. Questions should be planned well in advance and be based upon the specifi issues being faced within that system.
  

• Positive Interview Techniques	Negative Interview Techniques
  relaxed atmosphere	tense atmosphere
  well planned questions	ad hoc or poorly prepared questions
  focus on the real issues. direct interview	interviewee talks about what they want. lack of direction
  listen to them. they are important	Interviewee feels like they are not important or being listened to
  open ended questions	close ended questions

• Team Building/ Team Work: An efficient team is a cooperative and communicative team which are able to anticipate issues, respond quickly and adapt to change as required. In order to achieve this the Project Manager needs to recruit staff which have complimentary skills and personalities which will not clash. A sound communication plan helps by planning how communication will take place and who the key stakeholders are who require being kept informed.

consequences for groups that fail to function as a team can be quite considerable. projects may lose support, fail or not successfully achieve all of their goals if the team is not functioning as a unit. The consequnces may include:

Financial Loss: Costs may substantially increase if the team is not communicating well. lag times between different stages may increase and without adequate communication alternate plans may not be put into place. This may mean that resources (including staff) are left idle, shipping times may change, project may be delayed incurring penalty costs for the time or any number of other issues may arise which will increase costs. 
Employment Loss: If the project begins to fail, costs blowouts occur or the schedule falls too far behind, the sponsor may chose to throw more money at the project or he may let the project lapse and pullout entirely. This means loss of jobs. If a team is working effectively problems may be anticipated and issues may be avoided. 
Missed Opportunities: If the team is not working cooperatively opportunities which may arise may well be missed. Missed opportunities may include:

• upselling
• marketing the teams skills
• acceptance of new projects
  

project management tools, including:
– Gantt charts
– scheduling of tasks (Project Plans and Work Breakdown structures)
– journals and diaries
– funding management plan
– communication management plan

identifying social and ethical issues (see Section on Social and Ethical Issues)

Activity 2

1. Describe the various aspects of active listening and explain how they are important to a good project manager?
2. Describe how good team work can save time and effort for a Project Manager?
3. Why does poor team work have serious consequences for the success of a project?
4. In what ways can poor team work add costs on to a project?

Understand The problem

Key Words
Preliminary investigation, data collection, requirement report, project Plan, Information management software, project software, gantt chart

Planning

Key Words
Feasibility study, analysis report, Organisation Charts

Planning really requires many decisions as well as preparation. This stage involves making decisions on the data gathered in the first stage "Understanding The problem". The types of decisions are whether to actually go ahead with the project at all (feasibility study), decisions about the exact nature of the problem to be solved, the scope, what needs to be modified or repaired, the time frame, who will be responsible for what aspects of the project, the specifications, the constraints and any other aspects of the project which require decisions. These decisions can be reviewed throughout the project as necessary.

Feasibility Study (Report)
A feasibility study is now carried out. A feasibility study is a report which aims to set out the feasibility of various aspects of the project. The criteria generally used are:

Economic Feasibility: Can the company afford this or is it financially worthwhile? Is it financially better to update the old one or will this just bring more finacial problems in the future? What other costs are involved?

Technical Feasibility: Is it technically possible to do what is required? If so is the technical expertise at hand to complete this task or would we be required to bring in experts? (this then brings in newv questions about costs)

Schedule Feasibility: Is the time frame reasonable? Can it be achieved without cutting corners or extra costs?

Operational (organisational) feasibility: What are the impacts on the structure of the company? What is the impact on staff? Will there be any industrial action as a result? Is any change management required reasonable/ achieveable. What are the company staffing constraints on this project. What internal politics may be involved (the project manager would need to be aware of who supports or may be against the project but would not report on this. This information would be important in any Communication Plan)

The feasibility study is an extension of the preliminary investigation and will be divided into a number of sections:

Sections in a Feasibility Study (Report)
Any report is divided into sections with headings for each section.

• A title Page (detailing the project name, report name if different to project name, authors, date)
• Contents (List of sections in the report with corresponding page numbers)
• Problem Definition (Describe the problem to be solved)
• Requirement Report (aims and objectives of new system, should include general specifications. Full specifications should be appended as an annex to be signed off on by employer)
• Summary of Investigation (Summarise main data collected during preliminary investigation including an overview of the existing system {including problems}, benefits of a new system, costs and constraints)
• Alternative Solutions (Details of each proposed new system)
• Recommendations (detail any recommendations with supporting evidence)
• Project Plan (project schedule as described later)
• Appendix (Supplementary material such as surveys, gantt charts, organisational charts etc...)

Requirement Report

The requirement report will require a detailed analysis and listing of all procurements required for the new system. This will include all external and internal system specifications.

• The external specifications describe the appearance of the new system. This includes a design for any screen outputs, the format and layout of each screen, menu and report. The principles of design must be adhered to so as to ensure a professional and ascetically pleasing product. A good system designer would speak with all the users and have there input about suggested screen setups.

• Internal Specifications provide the technical specifications of the internal hardware and supporting software. Any required processing will be identified and specified. Data dictionaries, ERDs etc... will be produced to help accurately represent the system. Again the users would need to be consulted to ensure supporting hardware and software is adequate.

The Feasibility Study including a detailed Requirements Report will then presented to the sponsor (hiring company) for checking and signing off. If there are any issues to be resolved about the specifications or the perceived problems in the system then this is the time to raise them. After this the Feasibility Study, including requirements report will be signed off, becoming a legal document, and any changes will cost the company additional money.

Organisational Charts
Show the hierarchical organisation of a system.

Development Approaches

There are six different approaches to Systems Development listed in the syllabus:

1. Traditional: involving Project Management with an attempt at strict adherence to time frames and a plan as developed in the planning stage. Traditional Project Management is used more for larger projects because of larger overheads with smaller projects often using other methodologies.
2. Outsourcing: This is where an external company is hired to do work that was previously carried out by employees of the company. This is very useful when skills and resources arec required which the company has difficulty in supplying or in reducing management issues but cost are usually higher.
3. Prototyping: This is where a version of the system or software is developed and trialled. This is useful if expensive hardware or infrastructure is not required such as in software or web site design. It would not be useful for network development because of the cost and infrastructure required.
4. Customisation: Customisation of an "off the shelf" product is a common solution for many companies. This is particularly useful for for HR, finance and database solutions with products such as Oracle (which now also includes People Soft) and SAP being two very successful examples.
5. Participant Development: Particpant development happens when people within the information system develop their own solution. This ussually will involve readily available technology and would be unlikely to work with complex systems.
6. Agile Methods: The biggest distinction between traditional and agile methodologies is the attitude to plans and planning. Traditional methodologies focus on producing detailed plans and treat deviations  as errors that need to be corrected.

   Agile methodologies also produce plans, but see them only as approximations. Deviation from the plan are treated as feedback, and plans are adjusted accordingly. As such while traditional methodologies resist change, agile methodologies see change and view it as a normal part of a project.

   Agile methodologies approach development in an iterative and incremental manner. Each part of the plan is divided into small timeframes called interations at which point any changes will be added into the project.

Activity 3 (including Understanding The Problem)

1. Describe problems that could occur if the system is not fully understood?
2. What is the purpose of the Preliminary Report?
3. Draw a table with 2 columns. On one side have advantages to building a prototype and on the other the disadvantages. In the adavantages column describe some circumstances where a prototype would be useful. On the disadvantages ide describe circumstances where it may not be and explain why.
4. What is the purpose of a feasibility Study?
5. What happens if a feasibility Study does not advise the sponsor to go ahead or the sponsor decides not to?
6. Describe the 6 development approaches listed in the syllabus.
7. What is an iteration? 

Designing Solutions

Key Words
context diagrams, data flow doagrams, system flow charts, internal specifications, external specifications

This is all about the design for the new system. Designers may use a structured approach or an iterative object oriented approach. In either method a top down approach will probably be used where the system is divided into a series of general and smaller projects which will be brought together at the end. In the traditional structured approach everything is planned and described and no work starts until everything is defined and worked through. This method is less used these days. Generally speaking project managers understand that there is always a range of variables that are difficult to define. The structured approach requires that all of these variables be defined regardless of how time consuming or difficult that may be. In the iterative object model the difficult variables are left until the appropriate iteration.

In the iterative process the Gantt chart will be divided into iterations. Each iteration should not be longer than 4 weeks regardless of how physically large or long in time the project may be. After each iteration the schedule will become more specific as more detail is known. In the iterative approach everything is planned that is known but unlike the traditional structured approach there will be unknowns and gray areas that will be more defined as the project moves along.

Analysis Report
If the project is given the "go ahead" then the feasibility study is fleshed out and a more thorough analysis is required. A range of tools will be used to do the analysis: data flow diagrams, context diagrams, system flow charts, organisational charts and a very detailed Project plan which incorporates a Gantt Chart.
The analysis report will now have far more detailed specifications which will again need to be signed off on.

Design Tools
It is often easier to design a new system if the system is displayed in a visual format where people can see how the various aspects will work. To assist in this systems analysts and project managers will use a range of tools such as context diagrams, data flow diagrams, organisational charts (hierarchy charts) and system flow charts. There are a range of other tools but this course will focus primarily on these ones.

• Context Diagrams
  A context diagram is a graphical representation of a system which deliberately does not go into defining processes. It is just to give an overview of a system without getting bogged down in detail. There are only three symbols used in a context diagram: a circle to represent a the system in terms of a single process, arrows to show data flow, and a rectangle to show any external entities affecting the system.

Systems analysts draw data flow diagrams in several nested layers. A single process Context diagram can be expanded to show a more detailed data flow diagram. The context diagram must be drawn first which can then be expanded by various layers of data flow diagrams.

The nesting of data flow layers

A context diagram is a top level (also known as Level 0) data flow diagram. It only contains one process node (process 0) that generalizes the function of the entire system in relationship to external entities.

Data Flow Diagrams
A data flow diagram is the next level of detail in a context diagram. It will show a number of processes, inputs, outputs and storage. Note: A context diagram will not have storage. Only a DFD. The DFD focus is the data flow between the processes within a system. A DFD can become as detailed as the user requires. Remember that a context diagram is a level 0 DFD. The DFD will become increasingly detailed as the level increases. However each level will tend to focus on extending one or more of the processes rather than the entire system. The IPT course will only use level 0 (context diagram) DFD and a level 1 DFD.

An example first-level data flow diagram

Context Diagran Example

DFD Diagram Example: TAFE Library

If we expand the context diagram for the TAFE library into a DFD for borrowing books we end up with a DFD that looks like this:

The external entities of teachers and students have been combined under borrowers. The processes of Loan system and Research System are both inside the process called TAFE Library in the context diagram. The loans database has also come out of the process TAFE Library. There are two main differences between a DFD and a context diagram. Firstly there is no storage in a context diagram. Secondly a context diagram will only have a single process.

Data Dictionaries

A data dictionary is a comprehensive description of each field in a database set out in a table. A data dictionary would normally include a field name, data type, field size and a description of each field.

A data dictionary is a table with the details of all the fields about a single entity in a relational database or the entire database if it is a flat file database. Below is an example of a data dictionary.

Booking Table Data Dictionary

Field Name	Data Type	Field Size	Description
Customer ID	AutoNumber	LongInteger	A unique number given to every customer
First Name	Text	30	customers first name
Surname	Text	30	customer's surname
Address	Text	50	Street number and name only
Suburb	Text	50	Suburb or town name
State	Text	4	Use an accepted abbreviation: NSW, WA etc
Post Code	text	5	customers postcode
Telephone number	Text	12	Include area code
Mobile	Text	12	customer's mobile number
Email	Text	30	customer's email address
Ticket ID	Number	LongInteger	The unique number given in the purchased ticket sales
Event ID	Number	LongInteger	The unique number given to the Event table

Decision Tables :

Show the outcomes of all possible events in table form

Broadway Show Decision Table
CONDITION	DECISION			ACTION
	Ticket has Conditions (i.e. non transferable)	Ticket Purchase	Refund
Having Chosen Show	y	n	n	Read conditions of purchase and no ticket purchased
Having Chosen Show	Y	Y	N	Read conditions, ticket purchased but not refundable
Having Chosen Show	n	y	n	Ticket purchased but not refundable
Having Chosen Show	n	n	y	No ticket purchased but refundable if purchased
Having Chosen Show	n	Y	Y	Ticket purchased but refunded

Another Style of Decision Table

Decision Trees

will show the same information as a decision table but in a branching format.

Decision trees graphically show the results of a particular decision

System Design
The system must be designed in line with the feasibility study, analysis report, requirements report and the system specifications as agreed to with the employing firm. (assuming that you are probably contracted to do this work as most companies would not keep a systems analyst employed full time). As a part of the system design you may go through the following stages:

• clarifying with users the benefits of the new information system

clarifying each of the relevant information processes within the system

designing the information system for ease of maintenance detailing the role of the participants, the data and the information technology used in the system

•

refining existing prototypes

•

–

–

participant development, when people within the information system develop the solution participant designed solutions tools for participant development such as guided processes in application packages

 

Information Technology
The internal and external specifications will be the basis on which the hardware and software will be purchased. The software may be a prepackaged commercial product which may not exactly meet all of the requirements but it would certainly be much cheaper than custom built software. As long as the software largely answers the problems it may well be seen as a reasonable trade off.

The internal specifications will be the basis on which hardware will be purchased and installed. It may be found that existing hardware is sufficient. A number of quotes will be required and of course the most competitive prices will be given the supply contract.

Before use the new system must be thoroughly tested. Test data, based on normal usage is run through the system to find any bugs. The test data should cover a wide range of variables so as to thoroughly test it in a realistic environment. If all goes well then a beta test is carried out. A beta test will be run using real participants and real data. Any problems found here are then fixed. If no problems are found then it goes to the next phase of the development cycle, implementation.

Documentation
Before implementation one last thing must be ready, and that is the documentation. Documentation is necessary for users to understand how to use the system. User documentation becomes less necessary the more user friendly a system is, However, even when a system is exceptionally user friendly user documentation is still necessary for those unexpected problems.

user documentation will also set out system specifications as well as some information about its development.

The first level DFD shows the main processes within the system. Each of these processes can be broken into further processes until you reach pseudocode.

Online Collaboration Tools

http://www.mindmeister.com/12213323/best-online-collaboration-tools-2009-robin-good-s-collaborative-map

Activity 4

1. Describe the different design tools and how they are used.
2. What is the difference between a context diagram and a DFD?
3. What are some advantages of decision trees? When do you think they would be very useful?
4. How important do you believe the user is during the designing phase? Why do you think this?
5. What problems may occur if there is a large degree of stakeholder resistance? What steps would you implement to help remedy this?
6. What role does the Project Manager have in regards to change management?
7. Explain how could online collaborative tools be useful? 

Implementing

Key Words
conversion methods, parallel conversion, direct conversion, phased conversion, pilot conversion, training

During the implementation stage the new system is actually implemented. How surprising is that? But what does it actually mean for the participants and the organisation itself? Any new system or changes to an existing system means training is required as well as possible organisational changes to the company. It may mean that they need new staff to help run the system or that existing staff may lose their jobs or be redeployed elsewhere. The stages within the implemenation phase includes:

 Activity 5

1. Explain why an implementation plan is important and what pitfalls can happen if one is not used.
2. Describe the 4 different methods of conversion.
3. Why isn't prototyping a method of conversion?
4. Why is training important? 

Testing, Evaluating, Maintaining

Key Words
participant feedback, testing, evaluating, maintaining

After a new system is implemented it is crucial that it be tested and evaluated to ensure that it really is doing what was required. If a company is smart it will ask for participant feedback. Unfortunately many managers feel threatened by asking for their employees opinions.

Social and Ethical Issues Associated With Change and Project Management

These days information systems are affecting everyone's lives at an increasingly faster rate of knots. People's privacy is being compromised. People find that after working for a company for ten years they have been put out of work by a computer. Some people just struggle with the technology. Any new information system is going to affect the participants. If there is no effect on the workers then the new system may not even have been necessary. A new system should at least help process the work better. So we would at least be hoping for a positive change. But what about the negatives? How is the system affecting the participants? Is their work load less or has it increased? Is the new system infringing on their privacy?

• Machine Centred Systems: are designed around the computer at the expense of people. The machine centred system will simplify and make the computer more efficient and the people need to work around the computer.

• Human Centred Systems: are designed around the needs of people first and the computers are made to fit in with the needs of the participants.

The Work Environment  
A new system may mean drastic changes in the work environment. This may cause stress for some workers. However some changes may also be detrimental to the physical health of the participants. As such all ergonomic factors need to be taken into account when designing new systems.

The Changing Nature of the Workplace  
Unfortunately changes in technology are not always positive and may be impacting significantly upon the social structure of the work place.

• Telecommuting: More workers now are able to work from home through the internet. This has advantages and disdavantages. The advantages include flexibility in work times and childcare arrangements and avoidance of commuting costs and time lost during commuting but the disadavantages include blurring between the workplace and home which can increase stress and mean that the person telecommuting cannot always relax at home in the way that they used to. Social isolation from other workers, workflow problems as things get shuffled back and forth between home and work. Communication issues with other staff about questions arising from the work being processed, this is even more so the case if the person is processing out of office hours.

• Social Isolation: People are gregarious animals. Gregarious means that we like meeting with other people. Unfortunately technology can isolate people as well as bring people together. This is particularly a problem in machine centred work places. Social isolation also becomes a problem with telecommuting.

• Deskilling: As much as the technical skills of some workers are increasing at a fast pace other areas of the work force are particularly being deskilled as the computers take over more of their work. This means that some work previously covered by workers is no longer required. "each generation of technological change makes some work more complex and interesting and raises the level of training or qualification required by a (diminishing) fraction of intellectual and manual labor, for the overwhelming majority of workers, this process simplifies tasks or eliminates them, and thus eliminates the worker (p. 20)" (Aronowitz and DiFazio, 1994)

However automation maynot lead directly to improved performance. "In the 1980s General Motors spent $40 billion to automate its factories. In fact, GM spent enough money on capital equipment to have purchased both Honda and Nissan (Pfeffer, 1994, p. 8). An analysis of the results of this massive investment revealed that (McKersie and Walton, 1991):

First, the performance of the GM plant with high technology but no work reform was not signicantly better than that of the low-tech plant that continued traditional organizational practices. Advanced technology by itself clearly made little difference. Second, the NUMMI and Honda plants, with their moderate investments in technology but fundamentally reformed work organizations, dramatically outperformed GM's high-tech/traditional plant. Both required approximately 45 percent less time to assemble a car and produced 45 percent fewer quality defects than the GM plant. Third, compared with the NUMMI and Honda plants, Nissan's slightly more automated and slightly less advanced organizational design achieved comparable quality but signiÞcantly lower productivity. Again, the technology advantage appeared to be more than neutralized by a lag in organizational upgrading. The upshot is that advanced technology by itself fails to achieve performance gains. Only when innovation in work organization accompanies technological innovation do we see signicant performance advantages (pp. 249-250)

"INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND THE FUTURE OF WORK", Stan A. Hannah and Michael H. Harris cited from "Progressive Librarian: Issue number 10/11, Winter 1995/96"

Aronowitz, S., and W. DiFazio. 1994. The Jobless Future: Sci-tech and the Dogma of Work. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press 

 Project Managing Skills and Working In A Team

blog from a project manager, talks about the different skills, from being a manager to a part of a group.
http://blog. geekmanager. co.uk/